Environmental Resilience and the Role of Architectural Components in Enhancing Psychological Restoration and Well-being: A Neuroscience Perspective

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

• Mahbubeh Zamani ¹
• Farzane Vafaee ²
• Faramarz Fadaee ³

¹ Visiting Faculty Member, Department of Architecture, Khorasan Institute of Higher Education, Mashhad, Iran.

² Associate Professor, Neuroscience Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran. Associate Professor, Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.

³ Faculty Member, Department of Art and Architecture, Higher Education of Khorasan Mashhad, Iran

10.22067/context.2025.91591.1006

Abstract

The impact of the built environment on humans has been a longstanding focus of research. This study delves into the profound influence of architectural elements on environmental restorativeness and its subsequent impact on user well-being and mental health, as viewed through the lens of neuroscience. Employing a qualitative approach, the research involved a thorough analysis of literature and theoretical foundations related to environmental restorativeness, architectural components, and the environmental effects on mental health. Four primary theories pertinent to this topic—Stress Reduction Theory (SRT), Attention Restoration Theory (ART), Prospect-Refuge Theory (PRT), and Arousal Theory—served as the study's foundational frameworks, from which relevant architectural elements were extracted. Findings indicate that both physical and conceptual environmental components significantly influence restorativeness. These components can be categorized into two primary levels and one foreground level, with corresponding architectural elements identified in the research. Ultimately, this study presents a theoretical model for designing restorative environments that facilitate the restoration of psychological capabilities and user well-being, reducing stress, enhancing focus, and promoting self-actualization during active engagement with the restorative environment. This framework can be applied in architectural design to enhance the psychological well-being of individuals.

Keywords

• Restorative environments
• architectural components
• psychological restoration
• neuroscience

References

1. Abdelaal, M. S. & Soebarto, V. (2019). Biophilia and Salutogenesis as restorative design approaches in healthcare architecture. Architectural science review, 62(3), 195-205.‌ https://doi.org/10.1080/00038628.2019.1604313
2. Aitken, B. & MacMahon, C. (2019). Shared demands between cognitive and physical tasks may drive negative effects of fatigue: A focused review. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 1, 45.‌ https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2019.00045
3. Atkinson, J. W. (1957). Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior. Psychological review, 64(6p1), 359. ‌https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043445
4. Appleton, J. (1996). The Experience of Landscape; Wiley: New York, NY, USA.
5. Barbiero, G. (2014). Affective Ecology for Sustainability. Vis. Sustain.1:20–30. https://doi.org/10.7401/visions.01.03
6. Baroni, M. R. & Berto, R. (2013). Stress ambientale: cause e strategie di intervento. Carocci Ed.
7. Barrett, P. Davies, F. Zhang, Y. & Barrett, L. (2015). The impact of classroom design on pupils' learning: Final results of a holistic, multi-level analysis. Building and environment, 89, 118-133.‌ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2015.02.013
8. Basu, A. Duvall, J. & Kaplan, R. (2019). Attention restoration theory: Exploring the role of soft fascination and mental bandwidth. Environment and Behavior, 51(9-10), 1055-1081.‌ https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916518774400
9. Bennett, K. (2019). Savanna Hypothesis and Landscape Preferences, The. Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science, 1-4.‌ https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_3726-1
10. Berman, M. G. Jonides, J. & Kaplan, S. (2008). The cognitive benefits of interacting with nature. Psychological Science, 19(12), 1207-1212.‌ https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02225.x
11. Berto, R. (2005). Exposure to restorative environments helps restore attentional capacity. Journal of environmental psychology, 25(3), 249-259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2005.07.001
12. Berto, R. & Barbiero, G. (2017). How the psychological benefits associated with exposure to nature can affect pro-environmental behavior. Ann. Cogn. Sci, 1(10.36959), 23.‌ https://doi.org/10.36959/447/336
13. Berto, R. Baroni, M. R. Zainaghi, A. & Bettella, S. (2010). An exploratory study of the effect of high and low fascination environments on attentional fatigue. Journal of environmental psychology, 30(4), 494-500.‌ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2009.12.002
14. Berto, R. Massaccesi, S. & Pasini, M. (2008). Do eye movements measured across high and low fascination photographs differ? Addressing Kaplan's fascination hypothesis. Journal of environmental psychology, 28(2), 185-191.‌ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2007.11.004
15. Berto, R. (2014). The role of nature in coping with psycho-physiological stress: a literature review on restorativeness. Behavioral sciences, 4(4), 394-409.‌ https://doi.org/10.3390/bs4040394
16. Biassoni, F. Gandola, M. & Gnerre, M. (2023). Grounding the Restorative Effect of the Environment in Tertiary Qualities: An Integration of Embodied and Phenomenological Perspectives. Journal of Intelligence, 11(11), 208.‌ https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11110208
17. Bixler, R. D. Carlisle, C. L. Hammltt, W. E. & Floyd, M. F. (1994). Observed fears and discomforts among urban students on field trips to wildland areas. The Journal of Environmental Education, 26(1), 24-33.‌ https://doi.org/10.1080/00958964.1994.9941430
18. Bornioli, A. Parkhurst, G. & Morgan, P. L. (2018). The psychological wellbeing benefits of place engagement during walking in urban environments: A qualitative photo-elicitation study. Health & place, 53, 228-236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2018.08.018
19. Bornioli, A. & Subiza-Pérez, M. (2023). Restorative urban environments for healthy cities: A theoretical model for the study of restorative experiences in urban built settings. Landscape Research, 48(1), 152-163.‌ https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2022.2124962
20. Bower, I. Tucker, R. & Enticott, P. G. (2019). Impact of built environment design on emotion measured via neurophysiological correlates and subjective indicators: A systematic review. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 66, 101344.‌ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2019.101344
21. Bowler, D. E. Buyung-Ali, L. M. Knight, T. M. & Pullin, A. S. (2010). A systematic review of evidence for the added benefits to health of exposure to natural environments. BMC public health, 10, 1-10.‌ https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-10-456.
22. Brancato, G. Van Hedger, K. Berman, M. G. & Van Hedger, S. C. (2022). Simulated nature walks improve psychological well-being along a natural to urban continuum. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 81, 101779.‌ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2022.101779
23. Bratman, G. N. Hamilton, J. P. & Daily, G. C. (2012). The impacts of nature experience on human cognitive function and mental health. Annals of the New York academy of sciences, 1249(1), 118-136.‌ https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06400.x
24. Browning, W. Ryan, C. Clancy, J. (2014). 14 Patterns of Biophilic Design Improving Health & Well-Being in the Built Environment; Terrapin Bright Green LLC: New York, NY, USA; Washington, DC, USA, 2014.
25. Calogiuri, G. & Chroni, S. (2014). The impact of the natural environment on the promotion of active living: An integrative systematic review. BMC public health, 14, 1-27.‌ https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-873
26. Clatworthy, J. Hinds, J. & Camic, P. M. (2013). Gardening as a mental health intervention: A review. Mental Health Review Journal, 18(4), 214-225.‌ https://doi.org/10.1108/MHRJ-02-2013-0007
27. Coble, T. G. Selin, S. W. & Erickson, B. B. (2003). Hiking alone: Understanding fear, negotiation strategies and leisure experience. Journal of Leisure Research, 35(1), 1-22.‌ https://doi.org/10.18666/jlr-2003-v35-i1-608
28. Coburn, A. Vartanian, O. & Chatterjee, A. (2017). Buildings, beauty, and the brain: A neuroscience of architectural experience. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 29(9), 1521–1531. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_01146
29. Corbetta, M. & Shulman, G. L. (2002). Control of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attention in the brain. Nature reviews neuroscience, 3(3), 201-215.‌ https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn755
30. Elbaiuomy, E. Hegazy, I. & Sheta, S. (2019). The impact of architectural spaces’ geometric forms and construction materials on the users’ brainwaves and consciousness status. International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies, 14(3), 326-334.‌ https://doi.org/10.1093/ijlct/ctx018
31. Elsayed, M. Elshater, A. Shehayeb, D. & Afifi, S. (2024). Crafting an urban restorative model from bibliometric analysis of neuro-urbanism literature. Open House International.‏ https://doi.org/10.1108/OHI-08-2024-0291
32. Evans, G. W. (Ed.). (1984). Environmental stress. CUP Archive.‌
33. Evans, G. W. & McCoy, J. M. (1998). When buildings don’t work: The role of architecture in human health. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 18(1), 85-94.‌ https://doi.org/10.1006/jevp.1998.0089
34. Evans, G. W. (2003). The built environment and mental health. Journal of urban health, 80, 536-555. https://doi.org/10.1093/jurban/jtg063
35. Fink, G. R. Frackowiak, R. S. Pietrzyk, U. & Passingham, R. E. (1997). Multiple nonprimary motor areas in the human cortex. Journal of neurophysiology, 77(4), 2164-2174. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.1997.77.4.2164
36. Fornara, F. (2011). Are “attractive” built places as restorative and emotionally positive as natural places in the urban environment? In Urban diversities, biosphere and well-being: Designing and managing our common environment. Advances in people-environment studies, Vol. 2 (pp. 159-170). Hogrefe & Huber.
37. Gao, C. & Zhang, S. (2020). The restorative quality of patient ward environment: Tests of six dominant design characteristics. Building and Environment, 180, 107039.‌ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.107039
38. Gatersleben, B. & Andrews, M. (2013). When walking in nature is not restorative—The role of prospect and refuge. Health & place, 20, 91-101.‌ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2013.01.001
39. Gross, J. J. (1998). Sharpening the focus: Emotion regulation, arousal, and social competence. Psychological Inquiry, 9 (4), 287-290. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0904_8
40. Hartig, T. Mang, M. & Evans, G. W. (1991). Restorative effects of natural environment experiences. Environment and behavior, 23(1), 3-26. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916591231001
41. Hartig, T. Korpela, K. Evans, G. W. & Gärling, T. (1997). A measure of restorative quality in environments. Scandinavian housing and planning research, 14(4), 175-194. https://doi.org/10.1080/02815739708730435
42. Hartig, T. Evans, G. W. Jamner, L. D. Davis, D. S. & Gärling, T. (2003). Tracking restoration in natural and urban field settings. Journal of environmental psychology, 23(2), 109-123. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(02)00109-3
43. Hartig, T. (2004). Restorative environments. Encyclopedia of applied psychology, 3, 273-279. https://doi.org/10.1016/b0-12-657410-3/00821-7
44. Hartig, T. & Marcus, C. C. (2006). Essay: Healing gardens—places for nature in health care. The Lancet, 368, S36-S37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69920-0
45. Hartig, T. Van Den Berg, A. E. Hagerhall, C. M. Tomalak, M. Bauer, N. Hansmann, R. ... & Waaseth, G. (2011). Health benefits of nature experience: Psychological, social and cultural processes. In K. Nilsson, M. Sangster, & C. Konijnendijk (Eds.), Forests, trees and human health (pp. 127-168). Springer Netherlands.‌
46. Hartig, T. Mitchell, R. De Vries, S. & Frumkin, H. (2014). Nature and health. Annual review of public health, 35(1), 207-228. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032013-182443
47. He, Q. & Reith, A. (2022). (Re) Defining Restorative and Regenerative Urban Design and Their Relation to UNSDGs—A Systematic Review. Sustainability, 14(24), 16715. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142416715
48. Heerwagen, J. & Hase, B. (2001). Building biophilia: Connecting people to nature in building design. Environmental Design and Construction, 3, 30-36.
49. Herzog, T. R. Black, A. M. Fountaine, K. A. & Knotts, D. J. (1997). Reflection and attentional recovery as distinctive benefits of restorative environments. Journal of environmental psychology, 17(2), 165-170. https://doi.org/10.1006/jevp.1997.0051
50. Herzog, T. R. Maguire, P. & Nebel, M. B. (2003). Assessing the restorative components of environments. Journal of environmental psychology, 23(2), 159-170. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(02)00113-5
51. Higuera-Trujillo, J. L. Llinares Millán, C. Montanana i Avino, A. & Rojas, J. C. (2020). Multisensory stress reduction: a neuro-architecture study of paediatric waiting rooms. Building Research & Information, 48(3), 269-285. https://doi.org/10.1080/09613218.2019.1612228
52. Higuera-Trujillo, J. L. Llinares, C. & Macagno, E. (2021). The cognitive-emotional design and study of architectural space: A scoping review of neuroarchitecture and its precursor approaches. Sensors, 21(6), 2193. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21062193.
53. Hu, M. & Roberts, J. (2020). Built environment evaluation in virtual reality environments—a cognitive neuroscience approach. Urban Science, 4(4), 48.  https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci4040048
54. Itti, L. (2006). Quantitative modelling of perceptual salience at human eye position. Visual cognition, 14(4-8), 959-984. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506280500195672
55. Kellert, S. R. Heerwagen, J. & Mador, M. (2011). Biophilic design: the theory, science and practice of bringing buildings to life. John Wiley & Sons.
56. Kellert, S. R. and Wilson, E. O. (1993). The Biophilia Hypothesis. Olympia, WA: Island Press.
57. Herzog, T. R. & Rector, A. E. (2009). Perceived danger and judged likelihood of restoration. Environment and Behavior, 41(3), 387-401.‌
    https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916508315351
58. Kim, M. Y. Lee, S. Van, K. Kim, T. H. Jeong, S. C. Choi, I. Y. ... & Lee, S. H. (2010). Whole-genome sequencing and intensive analysis of the undomesticated soybean (Glycine soja Sieb. and Zucc.) genome. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(51), 22032-22037. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1009526107
59. James, W. (1892). Psychology. H. Holt.
60. Jeong, M. A. Park, S. & Song, G. S. (2016). Comparison of human thermal responses between the urban forest area and the central building district in Seoul, Korea. Urban forestry & urban greening, 15, 133-148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2015.12.005
61. Joye, Y. & Dewitte, S. (2018). Nature's broken path to restoration. A critical look at Attention Restoration Theory. Journal of environmental psychology, 59, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2018.08.006
62. Joye, Y. & Van den Berg, A. E. (2018). Restorative environments. In L. Steg, A. E. van den Berg, & J. I. M. de Groot (Eds.), Environmental psychology: An introduction (pp. 65-75). Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119241072.ch7.
63. Kang, Y. & Kim, E. J. (2019). Differences of restorative effects while viewing urban landscapes and green landscapes. Sustainability, 11(7), 2129. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11072129
64. Kaplan, R. & Kaplan, S. (1989). The experience of nature: A psychological perspective. Cambridge University Press.
65. Kaplan, R. Bardwell, L. V. & Slakter, D. B. (1993). The museum as a restorative environment. Environment and Behavior, 25(6), 725-742. https://doi.org/10.1177/001391659325600
66. Kaplan, R. (2001). The nature of the view from home: Psychological benefits. Environment and behavior, 33(4), 507-542. https://doi.org/10.1177/00139160121973115
67. Kaplan, S. & Talbot, J. F. (1983). Psychological benefits of a wilderness experience. Human Behavior & Environment: Advances in Theory & Research, 6, 163–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-3539-9_6
68. Kaplan, S. (1992). Environmental preference in a knowledge-seeking, knowledge-using organism. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 12(1), 19-22.Kaplan, S. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of environmental psychology, 15(3), 169-182. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-4944(95)90001-2
69. Kaplan, S. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of environmental psychology, 15(3), 169-182.‏ https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-4944(95)90001-2
70. Kaplan, S. & Berman, M. G. (2010). Directed attention as a common resource for executive functioning and self-regulation. Perspectives on psychological science, 5(1), 43-57. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691609356784
71. Karmanov, D. & Hamel, R. (2009). Evaluations of design gardens by students of landscape architecture and non-design students: A comparative study. Landscape Research, 34(4), 457-479. https://doi.org/10.1080/01426390903019833
72. Khaleghimoghaddam, N. Bala, H. A. Özmen, G. & Öztürk, Ş. (2022). Neuroscience and architecture: What does the brain tell to an emotional experience of architecture via a functional MR study? Frontiers of Architectural Research, 11(5), 877-890. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2022.02.007
73. Klemetsen, A. Amundsen, P. A. Dempson, J. B. Jonsson, B. Jonsson, N. O'connell, M. F. & Mortensen, E. (2003). Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. brown trout Salmo trutta L. and Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus (L.): a review of aspects of their life histories. Ecology of freshwater fish, 12(1), 1-59. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0633.2003.00010.x
74. Korpela, K. De Bloom, J. & Kinnunen, U. (2015). From restorative environments to restoration in work. Intelligent Buildings International, 7(4), 215-223. https://doi.org/10.1080/17508975.2014.959461
75. Koprivec, L. Zbašnik-Senegačnik, M. & Kristl, Ž. (2022). A study of restorative potential in window views adopting Kaplan’s attention restoration theory and urban visual preferences defined by Lynch. Journal of Architecture and Urbanism, 46(2), 148-159. https://doi.org/10.3846/jau.2022.16158
76. Laumann, K. Gärling, T. & Stormark, K. M. (2003). Selective attention and heart rate responses to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23(2), 125-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(02)00110-X
77. Lee, D. G. Lee, M. M. Jeong, Y. M. Kim, J. G. Yoon, Y. K. & Shin, W. S. (2021). Influence of forest visitors’ perceived restorativeness on social–psychological stress. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(12), 6328. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18126328
78. Lindal, P. J. & Hartig, T. (2013). Architectural variation, building height, and the restorative quality of urban residential streetscapes. Journal of environmental psychology, 33, 26-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2012.09.003
79. Lindal, P. J. & Hartig, T. (2015). Effects of urban street vegetation on judgments of restoration likelihood. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 14(2), 200-209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2015.02.001
80. Liu, Q. Wu, Y. Xiao, Y. Fu, W. Zhuo, Z. van den Bosch, C. C. K. ... & Lan, S. (2020). More meaningful, more restorative? Linking local landscape characteristics and place attachment to restorative perceptions of urban park visitors. Landscape and Urban Planning, 197, 103763. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2020.103763
81. Llorens-Gámez, M. Higuera-Trujillo, J. L. Omarrementeria, C. S. & Llinares, C. (2022). The impact of the design of learning spaces on attention and memory from a neuroarchitectural approach: A systematic review. Frontiers of Architectural Research, 11(3), 542-560. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2021.12.002
82. Madan, Ö. K. Chamilothori, K. van Duijnhoven, J. Aarts, M. P. & de Kort, Y. A. (2024). Restorative effects of daylight in indoor environments–A systematic literature review. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 102323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2024.102323
83. Martínez-Soto, J. Gonzales-Santos, L. Pasaye, E. & Barrios, F. A. (2013). Exploration of neural correlates of restorative environment exposure through functional magnetic resonance. Intelligent Buildings International, 5(sup1), 10-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/17508975.2013.807765
84. Martínez-Soto, J. Gonzales-Santos, L. Barrios, F. A. & Lena, M. E. M. L. (2014). Affective and restorative valences for three environmental categories. Perceptual and motor skills, 119(3), 901-923. https://doi.org/10.2466/24.50.PMS.119c29z4
85. Masullo, M. Ozcevik Bilen, A. Toma, R. A. Akin Guler, G. & Maffei, L. (2021). The restorativeness of outdoor historical sites in urban areas: physical and perceptual correlations. Sustainability, 13(10), 5603. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13105603
86. McCay, L. Bremer, I. Endale, T. Jannati, M. & Yi, J. (2017). Urban design and mental health. Urban mental health, 32, 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-2327-9_12
87. Meloni, A. Fornara, F. & Carrus, G. (2019). Predicting pro-environmental behaviors in the urban context: The direct or moderated effect of urban stress, city identity, and worldviews. Cities, 88, 83-90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2019.01.001
88. Menardo, E. Brondino, M. Hall, R. & Pasini, M. (2021). Restorativeness in natural and urban environments: A meta-analysis. Psychological Reports, 124(2), 417-437. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294119884063
89. Mohamed, A. A. A. (2017). Further step beyond green-From distractive, to balance, towards restorative built environment. HBRC journal, 13(3), 321-330. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hbrcj.2015.11.001
90. Morton, S. Pencheon, D. & Squires, N. (2017). Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and their implementation: A national global framework for health, development and equity needs a systems approach at every level. British medical bulletin, 124(1), 81-90. https://doi.org/10.1093/bmb/ldx031  
    
91. Mulckhuyse, M. & Theeuwes, J. (2010). Unconscious attentional orienting to exogenous cues: A review of the literature. Acta psychologica, 134(3), 299-309.‌ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2010.03.002
92. Nasar, J. L. (1994). Urban design aesthetics: The evaluative qualities of building exteriors. Environment and behavior, 26(3), 377-401. https://doi.org/10.1177/001391659402600305
93. Nicolini, E. (2022). Built Environment and Wellbeing—Standards, Multi-Criteria Evaluation Methods, Certifications. Sustainability, 14(8), 4754. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14084754.
94. Nilsson, K. Sangster, M. & Konijnendijk, C. C. (2011). Forests, trees and human health and well-being: Introduction. In K. Nilsson, M. Sangster, & C. Konijnendijk (Eds.), Forests, trees and human health (pp. 1-19). Springer Netherlands.
95. Ohly, H. White, M. P. Wheeler, B. W. Bethel, A. Ukoumunne, O. C. Nikolaou, V. & Garside, R. (2016). Attention Restoration Theory: A systematic review of the attention restoration potential of exposure to natural environments. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B, 19(7), 305-343. https://doi.org/10.1080/10937404.2016.1196155
96. Orians, G. H. & Heerwagen, J. H. (1992). Evolved responses to landscapes.
97. Orians, G. H. (1986). Site characteristics favoring invasions. In Ecology of biological invasions of North America and Hawaii (pp. 133-148). New York, NY: Springer New York.
98. Ouellette, P. Kaplan, R. & Kaplan, S. (2005). The monastery as a restorative environment. Journal of environmental psychology, 25(2), 175-188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2005.06.001
99. Ouf, A. Abdelaziz, T. M. & Tarek, S. (2023). A Conceptual Framework for Restorative Streetscape towards Better Health. https://doi.org/10.13189/cea.2023.110531
100. Panno, A. Theodorou, A. Carrus, G. Imperatori, C. Spano, G. & Sanesi, G. (2020). Nature reappraisers, benefits for the environment: A model linking cognitive reappraisal, the “being away” dimension of restorativeness and eco-friendly behavior. Frontiers in psychology, 11, 1986.‌ https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01986
101. Pardo, J. V. Fox, P. T. & Raichle, M. E. (1991). Localization of a human system for sustained attention by positron emission tomography. Nature, 349(6304), 61-64. https://doi.org/10.1038/349061a0
102. Pasini, M. Brondino, M. Trombin, R. & Filippi, Z. (2021). A participatory interior design approach for a restorative work environment: a research-intervention. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 718446. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.718446
103. Patuano, A. (2020). Biophilic design as a strategy for creating restorative urban environments. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(9), 3265.‌  https://doi.org/10.3390/su12104312
104. Pearson, D. G. & Craig, T. (2014). The great outdoors? Exploring the mental health benefits of natural environments. Frontiers in psychology, 5, 93642. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01178
105. Pearson, J. M. Heilbronner, S. R. Barack, D. L. Hayden, B. Y. & Platt, M. L. (2011). Posterior cingulate cortex: adapting behavior to a changing world. Trends in cognitive sciences, 15(4), 143-151.‌ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.02.002
106. Peña-Oyarzun, D. Bravo-Sagua, R. Diaz-Vega, A. Aleman, L. Chiong, M. Garcia, L. ... & Lavandero, S. (2018). Autophagy and oxidative stress in non-communicable diseases: a matter of the inflammatory state? Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 124, 61-78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2018.05.084
107. Peters, T. & D’Penna, K. (2020). Biophilic design for restorative university learning environments: A critical review of literature and design recommendations. Sustainability, 12(17), 7064.‌ https://doi.org/10.3390/su12177064
108. Purcell, T. Peron, E. & Berto, R. (2001). Why do preferences differ between scene types? Environment and behavior, 33(1), 93-106. https://doi.org/10.1177/00139160121972882
109. Qin, J. Sun, C. Zhou, X. Leng, H. & Lian, Z. (2014). The effect of indoor plants on human comfort. Indoor and Built Environment, 23(5), 709-723. https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X13481372
110. Ratcliffe, E. & Korpela, K. M. (2016). Memory and place attachment as predictors of imagined restorative perceptions of favourite places. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 48, 120-130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2016.09.005
111. Reece, R. Bornioli, A. Bray, I. Newbutt, N. Satenstein, D. & Alford, C. (2022). Exposure to green, blue and historic environments and mental well-being: a comparison between virtual reality head-mounted display and flat screen exposure. International journal of environmental research and public health, 19(15), 9457. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159457
112. Rust, N. C. & Cohen, M. R. (2022). Priority coding in the visual system. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 23(6), 376-388. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-022-00582-9
113. Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 141-166. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141
114. San Juan, C. Subiza-Pérez, M. & Vozmediano, L. (2017). Restoration and the city: the role of public urban squares. Frontiers in psychology, 8, 2093. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02093
115. Scopelliti, M. & Giuliani, M. V. (2004). Choosing restorative environments across the lifespan: A matter of place experience. Journal of environmental psychology, 24(4), 423-437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2004.11.002
116. Scopelliti, M. Carrus, G. & Bonaiuto, M. (2019). Is it really nature that restores people? A comparison with historical sites with high restorative potential. Frontiers in psychology, 9, 2742. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02742
117. Sedghikhanshir, A. Zhu, Y. Beck, M. R. & Jafari, A. (2022). The Impact of Visual Stimuli and Properties on Restorative Effect and Human Stress: A Literature Review. Buildings, 12(11), 1781.‌ https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12111781
118. Shemesh, A. Leisman, G. Bar, M. & Grobman, Y. J. (2022). The emotional influence of different geometries in virtual spaces: A neurocognitive examination. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 81, 101802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2022.101802
119. Shemesh, A. Talmon, R. Karp, O. Amir, I. Bar, M. & Grobman, Y. J. (2017). Affective response to architecture–investigating human reaction to spaces with different geometry. Architectural Science Review, 60(2), 116-125. https://doi.org/10.1080/00038628.2016.1266597
120. Staats, H. Kieviet, A. & Hartig, T. (2003). Where to recover from attentional fatigue: An expectancy-value analysis of environmental preference. Journal of environmental psychology, 23(2), 147-157. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(02)00112-3
121. Staats, H. & Hartig, T. (2004). Alone or with a friend: A social context for psychological restoration and environmental preferences. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24(2), 199-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2003.12.005
122. Stainbrook, E. (1968). Human needs and the natural environment. Man and Nature in the City, 1968, 1-9.
123. Stevenson, M. P. Schilhab, T. & Bentsen, P. (2018). Attention Restoration Theory II: A systematic review to clarify attention processes affected by exposure to natural environments. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B, 21(4), 227-268. https://doi.org/10.1080/10937404.2018.1505571
124. Stragà, M. Miani, C. Mäntylä, T. Bruine de Bruin, W. Mottica, M. & Del Missier, F. (2023). Into the wild or into the library? Perceived restorativeness of natural and built environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 91, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2023.102131
125. Subiza-Pérez, M. Vozmediano, L. & San Juan, C. (2019). Pretest-posttest field studies on psychological restoration: A descriptive review and reflections for the future. Landscape Research, 44(7), 845-859. https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2018.1493443
126. Syed Othman Thani, S. K. Hussein, H. & Siew Cheok, N. (2024). Landscape attributes as stimuli for cognitive restoration in the outdoor environment: A systematic review and thematic analysis. Journal of Leisure Research, 55(3), 441-461. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.2023.2225058
127. Tabrizian, P. Baran, P. K. Van Berkel, D. Mitasova, H. & Meentemeyer, R. (2020). Modeling restorative potential of urban environments by coupling viewscape analysis of lidar data with experiments in immersive virtual environments. Landscape and Urban planning, 195, 103704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2019.103704
128. Thwaites, K. Helleur, E. & Simkins, I. M. (2005). Restorative urban open space: Exploring the spatial configuration of human emotional fulfilment in urban open space. Landscape research, 30(4), 525-547. https://doi.org/10.1080/01426390500273346
129. Townsend, M. Henderson-Wilson, C. Ramkissoon, H. & Werasuriya, R. (2018). Therapeutic landscapes, restorative environments, place attachment, and well-being. Oxford textbook of nature and public health: The role of nature in improving the health of a population, 57-62. https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198725916.003.0036
130. Tuan, Y. F. (1977). Space and place: The perspective of experience. U of Minnesota P.
131. Lazar, S. W. Kerr, C. E. Wasserman, R. H. Gray, J. R. Greve, D. N. Treadway, M. T. ... & Fischl, B. (2005). Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness. Neuroreport, 16(17), 1893-1897. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.wnr.0000186598.66243.19
132. Ulrich, R. S. Simons, R. F. Losito, B. D. Fiorito, E. Miles, M. A. & Zelson, M. (1991). Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 11(3), 201-230. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(05)80184-7
133. Ulrich, R. S. (1993). Biophilia, biophobia, and natural landscapes. In S. R. Kellert & E. O. Wilson (Eds.), The Biophilia Hypothesis (pp. 73-137). Island Press.
134. Ulrich, R. S. (1979). Visual landscapes and psychological well‐being. Landscape research, 4(1), 17-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397908705892
135. Ulrich, R. S. (1981). Natural versus urban scenes: Some psychophysiological effects. Environment and behavior, 13(5), 523-556. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916581135001
136. Ulrich, R. S. (1984). View through a window may influence recovery from surgery. Science, 224(4647), 420-421. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.6143402
137. Van den Berg, A. E. Koole, S. L. & Van Der Wulp, N. Y. (2003). Environmental preference and restoration: (How) are they related? Journal of environmental psychology, 23(2), 135-146. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(02)00111-1
138. Van den Berg, A. E. & Ter Heijne, M. (2005). Fear versus fascination: An exploration of emotional responses to natural threats. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 25(3), 261-272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2005.08.004
139. Van den Berg, A. E. Joye, Y. & Koole, S. L. (2016). Why viewing nature is more fascinating and restorative than viewing buildings: A closer look at perceived complexity. Urban forestry & urban greening, 20, 397-401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.10.011
140. Van der Linden, D. Frese, M. & Meijman, T. F. (2003). Mental fatigue and the control of cognitive processes: effects on perseveration and planning. Acta psychologica, 113(1), 45-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-6918(02)00150-6
141. Weber, A. M. & Trojan, J. (2018). The restorative value of the urban environment: A systematic review of the existing literature. Environmental Health Insights, 12, 1178630218812805. https://doi.org/10.1177/1178630218812805
142. Weber, C. & Vereenooghe, L. (2020). Reducing conflicts in school environments using restorative practices: A systematic review. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 1, 100009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2020.100009
143. White, E. V. & Gatersleben, B. (2011). Greenery on residential buildings: Does it affect preferences and perceptions of beauty? Journal of Environmental Psychology, 31(1), 89-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2010.11.002
144. White, M. Smith, A. Humphryes, K. Pahl, S. Snelling, D. & Depledge, M. (2010). Blue space: The importance of water for preference, affect, and restorativeness ratings of natural and built scenes. Journal of environmental psychology, 30(4), 482-493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2010.04.004
145. Wilson, E. O. (Ed). (1993). The biophilia hypothesis. Island Press.